Community Q&A
Expert-verified answers to your financial certification questions. Ask, learn, and connect with fellow candidates.
CFA Level II Updated
How do I use the exponential distribution for default timing?
Exponential models waiting times with constant hazard lambda. Memoryless property makes it standard in reduced-form credit models.
When should I use F1 score instead of accuracy or AUC?
F1 is harmonic mean of precision/recall, essential for imbalanced classes. Bannockwood Credit Union picks Model B (F1=0.52) over Model C on 0.8% fraud dataset...
When should I use the Poisson distribution in finance?
Poisson models independent event counts with constant rate lambda. Useful for default counts, operational losses, and price jumps when events are independent.
Why does improving precision hurt recall, and vice versa?
Precision-recall tradeoff is mathematically forced along a single ROC curve. Heronshaw Insurance optimizes fraud threshold 0.42 (38% precision, 74% recall) to minimize $6.8M/yr expected cost...
How does early-exercise behavior affect the expected-term adjustment for employee options?
Expected term captures early exercise. Three methods: simplified (vesting plus contractual)/2, historical actual-exercise data, or lattice-implied exercise boundary. Shorter terms reduce fair value.
Why does gold futures almost always trade in contango?
Gold is a financial asset with negligible convenience yield. Futures price equals spot times one plus risk-free rate minus lease rate, producing persistent contango.
What is AUC in machine learning classification and how do I interpret it?
AUC measures ranking ability; Voltran Capital's credit default model AUC=0.82 is strong for corporate default prediction with 1.8x lift at 6% threshold...
When is a binomial/lattice model preferred over Black-Scholes for employee options?
Lattice models discretize time into steps and better handle early exercise rules, path-dependent payoffs, graded vesting with different terms, and dynamic volatility.
Why do long VIX futures positions consistently lose money over time?
VIX futures usually trade contango, so long-roll ETFs sell low and buy high each month, losing 8-12 percent annually to roll drag.
How do I apply Black-Scholes specifically for employee stock option valuation?
Black-Scholes for employee options uses the same equation with adjusted inputs: expected term instead of contractual, historical plus implied volatility, and dividend yield over the term.
How are short-term interest rate (STIR) futures priced and quoted?
STIR futures quote as 100 minus rate. A 95.50 price implies 4.50% rate. Tick is 0.5bp worth $12.50 on a $1M quarterly notional.
Why are executive stock options harder to value than traded options?
Executive options differ from traded options due to non-transferability, service requirements, long duration, and no dividend protection. Expected term adjustments reduce valuation meaningfully.
What is the convexity bias in Eurodollar (now SOFR) futures and how big is it?
Convexity bias arises because futures mark to market linearly while forwards are convex in rates. Adjustment is roughly half sigma squared times T1 times T2.
What is a break clause on a swap and how is the breakage cost calculated?
Break clauses permit optional early termination at predetermined dates. Kestrel Industries pays $1.52M breakage to exit a 4.05% pay-fixed swap when rates fall to 2.95%...
What are Performance Share Units (PSUs) and how are they valued?
PSUs are RSU-like awards where payout depends on performance or market targets, often 0 to 200 percent of target. Non-market conditions use probability estimates; market conditions use Monte Carlo.
How do you calculate the invoice price paid to the short at delivery?
Invoice price equals Futures Settle times CF times Face plus accrued interest. A worked example shows $98,819.90 for a 2040 bond.
What is novation of a swap position and what consent is required?
Novation transfers swap rights/obligations to a new party with three-way consent. Petrali Trading novates $2.3M negative MTM swap to Bank Raynfield, paying MTM plus $60K fee...
How are RSUs accounted for and how do they differ from stock options?
RSUs are promises to deliver shares upon vesting with grant-date fair value equal to spot price. No Black-Scholes needed. Treasury stock method dilutes EPS with limited proceeds.
What are the timing options the short has during the delivery month?
The short holds quality, timing, wild card, and end-of-month options that collectively reduce the fair futures price.
What is portfolio compression and why do dealers use it?
Compression terminates offsetting swaps across counterparties, cutting gross notional without changing risk. Aldermont, Cressidale, Wharnby reduce $3.9B gross to $100M net...
Want unlimited access?
You've browsed several pages. Sign in to save your spot, bookmark questions, and unlock all 1,373 CFA Level II community questions plus expert-verified study materials.
Have a Question? Ask Our Experts
Register to ask questions, get expert-verified answers, and connect with fellow certification candidates preparing for CFA, FRM, CIA, CPA, and EA exams.